Researchers have conducted the first bioarchaeological analysis of the diets of people living in Ukraine over 5,600 years ago. The results shine light on the lives and somewhat grim deaths of these Neolithic people.

The people in question were associated with the Neolithic Cucuteni-Trypillia culture who lived across Eastern Europe from around 5500 to 2750 BCE. These ancient humans lived in mega-sites that are among the earliest and largest city-like settlements known in prehistoric Europe, some of which had up to 15,000 inhabitants.

But despite the abundance of archaeological material related to these people, the Trypillia left very few human remains for archaeological analysis. This leaves many questions about their lives unanswered. For instance, we know very little about their lifestyle or social practices (especially burial rites), and lack biological information about their health. This is not unusual for prehistoric populations. In many instances, we have to rely on exceptionally preserved cases to draw broader conclusions.

Researchers have studied a settlement site near Kosenivka, Ukraine, which comprised several houses and is unique as it contains human remains. The 50 human bone fragments recovered among the remains of a house belonged to at least seven individuals, including adults and children, males and females. It is possible these individuals once lived in the now-buried house.

Interestingly, four of the individuals recovered had been heavily burnt and their remains were mostly found in the center of the house, which led researchers to speculate as to why this was the case – was it an accidental fire or some sort of burial rite?

Previous research had concluded that the unfortunate people had been killed by a fire at the house. Microscope analysis of their bone fragments suggested the individuals likely burned quickly after they died; in the case that this was an accidental fire, other individuals may have died from carbon monoxide poisoning, even those who fled the house.

But was this an accident or was something else at play? Two other individuals at the house had unhealed cranial injuries that raise the possibility that violence took place at the site. The extent to which such violence was related to the fire remains unclear.

Bones are extremely important for archaeological analysis; they not only allow us to consider how individuals died, but also how they lived. Analysis of the carbon and nitrogen present in bones, alongside an assessment of grains and animal remains found at sites, allows researchers to determine what ancient people’s diets consisted of. In this case, meat made up about 10 percent of the diets of those living in the house. This is further supported by an examination of their teeth, which show wear associated with eating grains and other plant fibers.

“Despite the overwhelming dominance of animal bones in the archaeological find assemblages from other settlement sites, our food web calculations clearly unmasked plants as the primary food source for the Trypillia people at Kosenivka, making up some 90 percent of the daily protein nutritional portion,” the researchers write in their paper.

Wider research has suggested that the Trypillia kept cattle, but that they used them mostly for manuring their fields and for their milk production, rather than for their meat.

“Even today, in farming societies without access to artificial fertiliser, large dung heaps are considered symbols of wealth, as they mark how many fields a household can fertilise.”

Ultimately, the remains from the Kosenivka house are rich for archaeological interpretation.

“Skeletal remains are real biological archives. Although researching the Trypillia societies and their living conditions in the oldest city-like communities in Eastern Europe will remain challenging, our ‘Kosenvika case’ clearly shows that even small fragments of bone are of great help,” Katharina Fuchs, the study’s first author, explained in a statement.

“By combining new osteological, isotopic, archaeobotanical and archaeological information, we provide an exceptional insight into the lives – and perhaps also the deaths – of these people.”

The study is published in PLOS ONE.