During the reign of Emperor Hadrian, two Jewish outlaws stood trial for a series of crimes including the freeing of slaves without paying the required fees and inciting rebellion against the Roman Empire. Details of the gripping case were lost for almost 2,000 years, but have now come to light after researchers translated the longest Greek papyrus ever found in the Judaean Desert.

Originally discovered at some point during the 1950s or early ’60s, the scroll was initially believed to have been penned by the ancient Nabataean people who occupied parts of the Middle East during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. After sitting in a museum in Jerusalem for several decades, the document was eventually revisited in 2014, at which point researchers realized that it was actually written in Greek.

Consisting of 133 lines of scandalous text, the papyrus turned out to contain the notes from a judicial hearing against two Jewish bandits named Saulos and Gadalias, as well as their accomplices Chaereas and Diocles. The narrative mentions Hadrian’s visit to Judaea in 129-130 CE while also naming Tineius Rufus – who governed the region until 132 CE – thus enabling the study authors to pinpoint the date of the trial to some time between 130 and 132 CE.

This date is significant, as it suggests that Saulos and Gadalias were conducting their subversive activities on the eve of a Jewish rebellion against Roman rule known as the Bar Kokhba revolt, which lasted from 132 to 136 CE. Significantly, the papyrus also accuses the pair of “sedition”, suggesting that they may have played a role in sparking the insurrection.

A lengthy rap sheet relating to Gadalias’ colorful history is then reeled off, listing such crimes as “violence”, “banditry”, counterfeiting money, escaping from prison, and financial extortion, for which he had been “many times convicted and banished.”

In the case at hand, however, it appears to be Saulos who is most at fault, having evaded the 5 percent tax that must be paid when emancipating slaves. In order to free three enslaved men named Abaskantos, Onesimos, and Niko- (name partly lost), Saulos appears to have used Chaereas as a “straw man”, fictitiously transferring ownership to this accomplice without actually handing over the bondservants.

Gadalias – who is described as “a man who may be cheaply bought” – was employed to falsify the documents, taking advantage of his position as the son of a crooked notary.

“This is the best-documented Roman court case from Iudaea apart from the trial of Jesus,” said study author Avner Ecker in a statement. And while there’s no indication of the trial’s outcome or the fate of Saulos, Gadalias, and their co-accused, the researchers note that the crime of falsum – meaning forgery – carried a heavy punishment in Roman times.

Penalties ranged “from expropriation and exile to condemnation to the mines and capital punishment,” the authors write, adding that “even members of the legally privileged class of honestiores are attested receiving harsh punishments for falsum.”

Given what we know about them, it’s fair to say the Romans didn’t mess about when it came to punishing criminals, so things certainly don’t look too good for Saulos and Gadalias.

The study has been published in the journal Tyche.